UNIT 3

PARTS AND TYPES OF PARAGRAPH

PARTS OF PARAGRAPH

There are three parts of a paragraph:

Topic sentence
Supporting sentences
Concluding sentence

TOPIC SENTENCES

WHAT IS TOPIC SENTENCE?

A topic sentence identifies (and introduces) a topic.
It is usually the first sentence or near the beginning of the paragraph.
It tells what your paragraph is about.
It is general; it doesn’t give details.
It has general introduction words, such as: several things, some important things, a number of reasons.
It has nouns, not pronouns.

Before writing any essay or even a paragraph, it is important to think, first about the topic and then what you want to say about the topic. Most often, the topic is easy, but the question then turns to what you want to say about the topic which is the controlling idea. Topic sentences should always contain both (1) a topic and (2) a controlling idea.

Topic Sentence = Topic + Controlling idea

EXAMPLE

Read the following topic sentences. They all contain a topic (in red) and a controlling idea (in green).

(1). People can avoid burglaries by taking certain precautions.
(2). There are several advantages to growing up in a small town.
EXERCISE 1

Circle the topic and underline the controlling idea.

International universities require a minimum of 450 point paper-based TOEFL score for a number of reasons.
Air pollution in Mexico City is the worst in the world for a number of reasons.
Fixing a flat tire on a bicycle is easy if you follow these steps.
There are several enjoyable ways to travel between Jakarta and Bandung.
Effective leadership requires specific qualities that anyone can develop.

EXERCISE 2

Write three topic sentences, each containing a topic and a controlling idea.

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SUPPORTING SENTENCES

To write a paragraph, we need to support the topic sentences with relevant supporting details. These details are necessary to sufficiently provide explanation to make what we want to say clear and easy to understand.

For example:

(1). Topic Sentence: People can avoid burglaries by taking certain precautions.

Supporting details:

Locking doors
Leaving lights on
Installing an alarm system

(2) Topic Sentence: There are several advantages to growing up in a small town.
Supporting details:

Walking to work, school, market
Surrounded by friends and families
Fresher air

EXERCISE 3

Can you list down at least three supporting details for each topic sentence below?

(1). International universities require a minimum of 450 point paper-based TOEFL score for a number of reasons.

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(2). Air pollution in Mexico City is the worst in the world for a number of reasons.

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(3). Fixing a flat tire on a bicycle is easy if you follow these steps.

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(4). There are several enjoyable ways to travel between Jakarta and Bandung.

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(5). Effective leadership requires specific qualities that anyone can develop.

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EXERCISE 4: Rewrite your topic sentences and list down at least three supporting details for each topic sentence.

CONCLUDING SENTENCE

What is a concluding sentence?

A concluding sentence ends (and sums up) a topic.
It is usually the last sentence in a paragraph.
It tells what the paragraph was about.
It is general; it doesn’t give details.
It has summary noun phrases, such as: this information, these ideas, those reasons.

It has summary adjectives, such as: important, difficult, excellent.

The conclusion is almost like the topic. It has many of the same words as the topic sentence.

What does it do?
It restates the main idea of your paragraph.

How do I write one?
Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different words.

EXAMPLE 1:

There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

EXAMPLE 2

TOPIC SENTENCE

CON LUDING SENTENCE

Something happened at the coal mine.

Homer did several things to help his family.

Homer learned some things about working in a coal mine.

These terrible things happened at the coal mine.

Homer did these things to help his family.

From this experience, Homer learned about the difficult work in the coal mine.

EXERCISE 5

Fill in the blank with the concluding sentence.

Topic sentence: My first encounter with a snowfall was a memorable experience.

Supporting sentences: It was on a trip to Mt. Jade a few years ago. We visited the mountain on Christmas Day, and there was a feeling of magic. Just after we arrived, the snow started falling. I remember my pleasure and excitement at the sight of the soft snowflakes drifting gently down from the white sky. In a matter of hours, the entire landscape was covered by an enchanting white carpet. It reminded me of a European fairy tale I had read as a child.

Concluding sentence: _________________________________________________________

Topic sentence: There are three reasons why I try to avoid taking taxis whenever it is possible.

Supporting sentences: First, they are expensive. The public transportation system is much cheaper to get around. In addition, taxis are far more often involved in road accidents than any other vehicles except motorcycles. Finally, the behavior and attitudes of some taxi drivers can make riding in a taxi a dangerous and unpleasant experience.

Concluding sentence: ________________________________________________________

Topic sentence: Cellular phones are more of a nuisance than a help.

Supporting sentences: In classrooms, movie theaters, and restaurants, we can hear their annoying ringing when instead we should have quiet surroundings. Drivers have accidents by using cellular phones in their cars because they pay attention to their phone rather than to the traffic around them. Finally, people who have recently purchased a cellular phone—and that is an awful lot of people—make many unnecessary calls just to play with their new “toy,” which is a bother to everyone else.

Concluding sentence: ________________________________________________________

TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES

Transitional words and expressions help connect ideas within and between paragraphs. They do this by showing relationships, such as addition or contrast or result (Quick Access 37).

To Show:	Use these Expressions:
Addition	In addition, also, too, besides, equally important, furthermore, moreover, additionally, further. Example: The price is too high; furthermore, the apartment is not in an appropriate place.
Comparison/ Similarity	In the same way, likewise, similarly
Concession	Even though; though; although; despite this. Example: Even though he is a funny person, he looks very serious in the classroom.
Contrast/Exception	In contrast, however, instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, nevertheless, still, yet Example: I like dogs; however, I hate cats.
Emphasis	Of course, certainly, indeed, in fact, even so, truly Example: Even though he is a quiet person, everyone likes him. In fact, he is always invited to parties.
Example	For example, for instance, as an illustration, a case in point, namely, specifically, to illustrate, in fact Example: I think he doesn’t have any concept of time; for example, he kept me waiting almost two hours yesterday.
Generality	In general, for the most part, as a general rule, on the whole, usually, typically
Result/Cause and Effect	As a result, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus, accordingly, so, for this reason Example: It was raining; therefore, we decided to stay at home.
Summary/Conclusion	Finally, in conclusion, in short, in summary, in brief, in the end, on the whole, thus, in other words, therefore Example: Mary didn’t get up when her mother woke her up; she didn’t wash her face before she went to school; at dinnertime she didn’t go to the kitchen to help her mother. In short, she behaved uncharacteristically all day.
Time sequence	Today, tomorrow, yesterday, once, now, then, eventually, meanwhile, subsequently, finally, first, second, third, afterwards, at last Example: If you want to get a good grade, you have to follow these directions: First, you must preview what you will study tomorrow. Second, you must do your homework. Third, you must review what you have learned after school.

EXERCISE 6

Underline all of the transitional words and phrases in the following paragraphs.

“It’s going to storm,” warned Grandmother, pointing to birds way up in the afternoon sky. Only a few clouds were in sight, but I knew she was right. When a thunderstorm is forming, warm, moist air flows upward. Consequently, flying insects are drawn up, too. Because the insects are higher, birds must fly higher than usual to catch and eat them. As a result, the birds provide a sign that the atmosphere is right for developing thunderstorms. The swallows we saw were flying so high that we could barely see them. Grandmother and I therefore checked the TV weather forecast, and just as Grandmother thought, rain was expected.

Japan is a nice country to visit. For example, there are many temples in Kyoto and Nara , where you can enjoy terrific views. Korakuen Park in Okayama is famous for its beautiful Japanese garden. However, Japan has another aspect. Traffic jams are terrible in Tokyo and it takes more than an hour for many workers to get to their office. The price of food is incredibly high. Maybe Japan is not a good place to live.

OUTLINING

After you finish writing your topic sentence and supplying it with supporting details, you can complete your outline with a concluding sentence.

For example:

Topic Sentence: People can avoid burglaries by taking certain precautions.

Supporting details:

Locking doors
Leaving lights on
Installing an alarm system

Concluding sentence:

These three precautionary measures are important to maintain security at home.

Paragraph:

People can avoid burglaries by taking certain precautions. First, lock all doors before you leave the house or before going to bed at night. Leave the lights on the entrance or the terrace on because burglars don’t like operating in a well-lit area. Last but not least, it is advisable to install an alarm system to warn you against any force entry to the house. If you don’t want to be sorry, these three precautionary measures are important to maintain security at home.

Topic Sentence: There are several advantages to growing up in a small town.

Supporting sentences:

Most places are within walking distance

Supporting detail: Walking to work, school, market.

You feel safe surrounded by people you know.

Supporting detail: The people in town are either your friends, neighbors or relatives.

You can breathe fresh air.

Supporting detail: Many trees, parks and limited number of motorized vehicles make the air fresher to breathe

Concluding Sentence:

I really feel lucky growing up in a small town.

Paragraph:

In my opinion, there are several advantages to growing up in a small town. First, most places to go are within walking distance. You can walk to work, school and market. Another advantage is you feel safe surrounded by people you know wherever you go. The people in town are either your friends, neighbors or relatives, which makes you feel really at home. Finally, you can enjoy fresher air. A small town is still full of shady trees, beautiful parks and it has limited number of motorized vehicles. All this makes the air fresher to breathe. So, you see, I feel really lucky to grow up in a small town.

EXERCISE 7

Write the outline of the following paragraph.

An article appearing in last week’s issue of the Archives of Internal Medicine confirms that taking aspirin significantly reduces the risk of heart attack, stroke, and death in patients with increased risk for coronary artery disease. According to the author, data from five major randomized trials demonstrated that, in patients whose 10-year risk of developing heart disease is 10% or higher, taking aspirin reduced the risk of having a first heart attack by 32%, and the combined risk of heart attack, stroke and vascular death by 15%. Further, the author pointed out that over 10,000 premature deaths and 100,000 first heart attacks could be avoided each year in the U.S. alone, if doctors made more appropriate recommendations for aspirin therapy. Unfortunately, doctors frequently miss the opportunity to recommend well-established therapies – like aspirin – that significantly reduce that risk.

Topic Sentence:

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Supporting details:

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Concluding sentence: ___________________________________________________________________________

EXERCISE 8

Complete your previous outline with concluding sentence and develop a paragraph from the outline.

EXERCISE 9

Writing a paragraph

Look at the topic and come up with a topic sentence.
Jot down any ideas that support the topic sentence.
Decide which should be included in the paragraph. Cross out the ones that are not relevant.
Write the relevant ideas from the list in sentence form.
Write the sentences in paragraph form.

Practice:

is a great place to visit.

Topic sentence: ____________________________________________________________

Supporting ideas:

________________________________________________________________
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Concluding sentence: ____________________________________________________________

TYPES OF PARAGRAPH

Based on the purposes, here are the basic types of paragraphs:

expository: informative or persuasive
narrative
descriptive

Expository Writing

There are two kinds of expository writing.

Informative

The informative is used when you have only facts to communicate. Informative expository writing deals with facts only. If you write a set of instructions for cleaning your automatic coffeepot, you are using informative writing. If you write the facts about a city, you are doing informative writing. Informative writing is very important in the world of work. Much of the writing that takes place in an office is informative: a letter ordering stationery, a report on a work-related accident, a memo about contributions to the social fund.

When writing informative material make sure the introductory sentence clearly identifies the topic and gives general idea of the facts the reader is about to learn. For example, Cleaning an electric coffee maker is a five step process.

Persuasive

Persuasive is sometimes referred to as argumentative. Persuasive expository writing is used to persuade the reader to change his/her mind or to accept your point of view. Persuasive writing allows you to express an opinion and then support it with convincing reasons.

Example

The Bathurst Adult Learning Centre has been in existence for seven years. It was founded in 1991 by a group of citizens concerned about the large number of local people who had low literacy levels. Initially, the volunteers worked to raise public awareness with meetings, newspaper articles, and radio commercials. Then in 1992, the group learned of a provincial government program, Community Academic Services Program (CASP) designed to help volunteer organizations set up and run community-based classrooms for adults in need of literacy training. Today, classes are still held in the Donald Eddy Memorial Hall on St. Patrick Street in Bathurst. During the seven years of its existence, more than 200 students have been registered. Many of them have since been able to find work or have advanced to Senior Academic Upgrading at the Community College. The future looks bright for this locally run literacy initiative.

This paragraph has unity: every sentence presents a fact about the group. It also has coherence because each sentence is tied to the one before and after it with transitions. Because this paragraph is about history, the transitions have to do with time: founded, initially, then in 1992, today, still, during the seven years of its existence, students…many of them, the future.

Narrative Writing

Narrative writing is the way to present a story that consists of events that happen one after the other. The story you tell can be true or fictional. Any time you relate actions that take place over a period of time you are writing a narrative.

Here are some of the requirements for writing a narrative.

Use the writing process, just as you did for expository writing.
The incident you tell should have a point to it (e.g. a story about a car accident might focus on what real fear is like).
Use a narrator to tell the story.
Include lots of specific details. Give people and places names. (e.g. My friend Susan and I were driving to Lake Simcoe when…)
Use quotations (dialogue) if it will make the story seem more real and believable.
Include transitions that show how time is passing or how people in the story are moving from place to place. (e.g. now, later, then, after, next Wednesday…nearby, turning left, after entering the room)

Example

Check the content of this narrative against the list above and find examples of each point.

Shimmering heat waves rose from the pavement as Susan and I rounded Suicide Corner just outside Milton. A loud pop under my right foot jolted me into awareness, and Susan said rather too calmly, “We’re in trouble.” The Mustang wobbled briefly from side to side. Foolishly, I thought that maybe she was just kidding around. Then, I saw the trees along the roadside rush closer. Everything went quiet as she wrestled the car back in line, but inexplicably we were heading for the opposite ditch. Three times, we slued across the highway, flirting with culverts and ditches, and I remember thinking how odd the absence of sound was and how I felt no fear at all. Suddenly, the seatbelt tightened across my chest, and we were sliding down an embankment into the right hand ditch; brush and tall grass rushed past and slapped against my window. I waited for the crash, but it didn’t come immediately. The Mustang teetered clumsily before I realized that we were going to roll. In slow motion, the grass and mud pushed up toward my face. I was pressed against my door with the handle cutting into my side when we stopped with a rending crash. Susan hung from her seatbelt and clutched the steering wheel to keep from crushing me. Sound returned to my world as she gasped, “I’m sorry, I’m sorry, I don’t know what happened.” Sweeping diamonds of glass from our faces, we struggled to release our seat belts and climb from the wreck. Standing on the roadside staring at the long snaking skid marks that passed within a whisper of a big old oak tree, fear washed over us.

EXERCISE 10

List the events retold by the author.(Leave out the details.)
What effect do Susan’s actual words (dialogue) have on your reaction to the story?
Who is telling the story? (the narrator)
What is the writer’s real purpose for telling this story?
List the words (transitions) that show the passage of time?
List the words (transitions) that show the change of location?
Make a list of the strong descriptive nouns, verbs, etc. the writer has used to
help the reader experience the accident as if he/she were really there.
What is the dominant feeling the writer has communicate about the accident?

Descriptive Writing

The last kind of writing is descriptive. Descriptive writing is like painting a still life picture. The writer has a picture in his/her mind that he/she wants to communicate to the reader. The writer describes that picture by presenting specific details in an organized way (as viewed from right to left, or back to front, or top to bottom, etc.) Descriptive writing requires the use of specific details and vocabulary that carries a strong meaning. For example, an old man in a worn-out bathrobe could be described as “a scarecrow draped with a tattered teal-blue bathrobe that hung from his bony shoulders like a rag.”

Another aspect of writing good description is that the details the writer provides should appeal to as many of the five senses as possible. Human beings gather information about the world around them in only five ways, their five senses.

In order to communicate information about a scene, the writer has to give the reader the same kind of information he/she would get about it on his/her own. That means that the writer must tell not only what he/she sees, but also what he/she smells tastes, touches and hears. For example, a scene in a country kitchen might include details of the smell of bread baking, the sound of dishes being washed, the anticipation of the nutty taste of the fresh bread, and the feeling of warmth from the wood stove. With all these details, the reader has the information he/she needs to imagine being there.

EXERCISE 11

Read the descriptive passage below.

The reek of burned rubber and the stench of spilled gasoline on the summer breeze assaulted our nostrils. As Susan and I stared into the ditch, the Mustang’s rear fender, crumpled like tin foil embedded with shards of red tail light, winked at us. When we got closer, the whole vehicle became visible, and the click of cooling metal cut the silence. The Mustang’s right side, scrubbed clean of paint, lay exposed to the sky; three deep gouges ran from back to front slicing deeply into the metal. The driver’s door stood strangely erect where the we had clambered out. In front of that, the remains of the windshield, tapping and tinkling as it swayed against the collapsed engine compartment, hung in ragged sheets of pulverized glass. Finally our hearing returned along with a memory of screeching metal and tearing plastic against the background of bird calls and whistling cicadas. The sun shone hot on my face. I was thankful to be alive.

List the senses the writer appeals to and give several examples of each.
Make a list of words that contribute information about sensory details.
How did the writer organize the details?
Identify the transitions used?
What message was the writer trying to communicate?
List ten specific details that make the picture vivid.

EXERCISE 12: Identifying Types of Paragraphs

Answer the questions for each paragraph below.

This kitten has been in our house for only three weeks, but already it seems to belong to everyone. I always thought my brother Emil was my ally, but last night he proved me wrong. I heard meows and giggles coming from his room and went to investigate. I did not see them at first, but as I came around the bed I noticed the closet door was ajar. I opened it and there were the kitten and Emil, playing with my favorite ball!

Is this paragraph narrative, descriptive, or expository? ___________________